East Asia

Chinese civilisation grew up along the Yellow River. The Shang dynasty left the first Chinese writing on oracle bones around 1250 BC; the Zhou developed the idea of the Mandate of Heaven, under which a ruler governs only while heaven approves. The Qin unified China in 221 BC with standard script, weights and roads, and the Han, from 206 BC, gave their name to the majority Chinese people. Later dynasties, notably the Tang, Song, Ming and Qing, reinforced a state run by scholar-officials selected by examination.

For centuries China managed foreign relations through the tributary system. Neighbouring rulers sent envoys with gifts, acknowledged the emperor’s ritual supremacy and in return received trade rights and recognition. Korea’s Joseon dynasty, Vietnam, the Ryukyu kingdom and at times Japan took part. The system was flexible: it gave China prestige and its neighbours security and commerce, without direct rule. Mongolia went the other way: under Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan the Mongols conquered China itself, ruling as the Yuan dynasty from 1271 to 1368.

Korea and Japan borrowed selectively. Both adopted Chinese characters, Buddhism, Confucian ethics, legal codes and city planning, while keeping their own languages and ruling families. Korea invented its own alphabet, Hangul, in 1446. Japan kept an emperor as a symbolic head while military shoguns ruled, and after 1639 largely closed itself to Western trade for two centuries. Both countries resisted Chinese and Mongol invasions and repelled a Japanese one in Korea in the 1590s at great cost.

The 19th century upended this order. Britain’s Opium Wars forced China to open ports and cede Hong Kong in 1842; Portugal formalised its hold on Macau. Japan, forced open by the United States in 1853, modernised rapidly after the Meiji Restoration of 1868, defeated China in 1895 and Russia in 1905, and annexed Taiwan in 1895 and Korea in 1910. The Qing dynasty fell in 1912. Japan’s invasion of China from 1937 and the Pacific War to 1945 left deep and still-debated memories across the region.

The Cold War divided the region. In 1949 the Communist Party founded the People’s Republic of China on the mainland, and the Republic of China government retreated to Taiwan. Korea was split at the 38th parallel in 1945; the Korean War of 1950–53 ended in an armistice, not a peace treaty, and the Demilitarised Zone still divides the peninsula. Mongolia was a Soviet ally until 1990, when it became a multi-party democracy. Hong Kong returned to China in 1997 and Macau in 1999.

Growth came in waves. Japan rebuilt after 1945 into the world’s second-largest economy by 1968. South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong followed from the 1960s, and South Korea and Taiwan became democracies in the late 1980s. China’s reforms under Deng Xiaoping from 1978 produced four decades of rapid growth and made it the world’s second-largest economy. For visitors, this history explains the extraordinary modern infrastructure, the pride in rapid development, and why wartime history is still a sensitive subject.

Chinese characters are the shared foundation. Each character represents a syllable and a unit of meaning; a literate reader needs about 3,000 to 4,000. Because the script was used across the region for centuries, many words in Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese come from Chinese, and a Chinese reader can often guess the meaning of a Japanese sign without being able to pronounce it. The spoken languages, however, are unrelated: Chinese is Sino-Tibetan, Japanese and Korean belong to separate families.

Mainland China adopted simplified characters in the 1950s and 1960s, reducing the number of strokes in many common characters. Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau still use traditional characters, as do many overseas Chinese communities. Singapore and Malaysia use simplified. The difference matters for menus, translation apps and signs: set your translation app to the right script. Spoken Chinese differs too: Mandarin is the national language of both China and Taiwan, while Cantonese is standard in Hong Kong, Macau and Guangdong.

Japanese is written in a mix of three scripts. Kanji are Chinese characters, used for most nouns and verb stems. Hiragana, a curved syllabary developed around the 9th century, handles grammatical endings and native words; katakana, an angular syllabary, is used for foreign loanwords and emphasis. A sign may combine all three with Latin letters. For visitors, katakana is the most useful to learn: words like ‘koohii’ for coffee and ‘hoteru’ for hotel are English in disguise.

Korean is written in Hangul, an alphabet created in 1446 under King Sejong so that ordinary people could read. Its 24 basic letters are grouped into syllable blocks; most visitors can learn to sound out signs in a few hours, and many menu items turn out to be English loanwords. Chinese characters, called hanja, appear only occasionally in South Korea, in newspapers, names and temples. North Korea uses Hangul exclusively.

Mongolia writes in Cyrillic, adopted in the 1940s under Soviet influence, but the traditional vertical Mongolian script is being revived. It is taught in schools, used on official seals and signs, and the government has moved to use both scripts in official documents (check). In Inner Mongolia, part of China, the traditional script is still in use. Tibetan, Uyghur and other minority scripts appear on signs in their regions of China.

English is less widely spoken than many visitors expect. It is common in Hong Kong, reasonably so among young people in Taiwan and Korea, and patchy in Japan and mainland China outside hotels and big-city transport. Signs in transport systems are almost always bilingual. Translation apps with camera modes solve most problems; download offline language packs before arriving in mainland China, where Google services are blocked.

Confucianism shapes daily life more than any formal religion. Founded on the teachings of Confucius in the 5th century BC, it stresses duty to parents, respect for elders and rank, education and correct ritual. It explains why seniority matters so much at work and table, why exam success is prized, and why ancestors are honoured with altars and memorial rites. Confucian temples, often attached to old academies, are found from Beijing to Seoul and Taipei.

Buddhism arrived in China from India along the Silk Roads by the 1st century AD and spread to Korea and Japan by the 6th century. The main schools are Mahayana: Chan in China, Seon in Korea and Zen in Japan, focused on meditation, and Pure Land, focused on devotion. Temples range from mountain monasteries to city complexes. Japan’s temples, Korea’s mountain monasteries and Taiwan’s large modern Buddhist organisations are all active, and many offer temple stays for visitors.

Shinto is Japan’s native tradition of kami, spirits in nature, ancestors and places. There are about 80,000 shrines, marked by torii gates, where people pray for exams, marriage, safe travel and business. Most Japanese visit shrines for New Year and birth rites and Buddhist temples for funerals, without seeing a conflict. At a shrine, rinse hands and mouth at the water basin, bow twice, clap twice and bow once.

Taoism, drawing on Laozi and folk religion, fills Chinese and Taiwanese temples with gods of wealth, war, the sea and the city. Mazu, the sea goddess, is among the most popular in Taiwan, Fujian and Macau. Korea keeps a shamanic tradition, musok, in which mudang, mostly women, perform rituals, gut, to contact spirits. In China, the state officially recognises five religions, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism, and regulates them closely.

Christianity is a large force in South Korea, where roughly three in ten people are Christian, many Protestant, with megachurches in Seoul. It is smaller elsewhere: a few percent in Japan and Taiwan, and a regulated minority in mainland China. Mongolia follows Tibetan Buddhism, revived since 1990 after Soviet-era repression, alongside shamanic traditions and reverence for the sky, Tengri, and sacred cairns called ovoo. Walk around an ovoo clockwise three times and add a stone.

Many East Asians describe themselves as having no religion yet visit temples, keep ancestor altars and consult fortune-tellers. Visitors are welcome at most temples and shrines. Keep quiet, follow signs on photography, remove shoes where required, and do not step on the raised threshold of a Korean or Chinese temple gate. Incense and donations are voluntary; small coins are usual at Japanese shrines.

The region shares a base of rice, wheat and soy. Southern China, Japan and Korea eat short or medium-grain rice with every meal; northern China eats more wheat, in noodles, dumplings and steamed buns. Soy appears as soy sauce, tofu, soy milk and fermented pastes. Noodles are everywhere: hand-pulled lamian in China, ramen, udon and soba in Japan, naengmyeon and kalguksu in Korea, beef noodle soup in Taiwan.

Fermentation defines each cuisine. Korea has kimchi, fermented vegetables eaten at every meal, and pastes such as doenjang and gochujang. Japan relies on miso, soy sauce, mirin and dashi, a stock from kelp and bonito flakes. China has doubanjiang, the fermented broad bean and chilli paste of Sichuan, plus black vinegar, fermented tofu and many soy sauces. Korean kimjang, the communal making of kimchi, and Japanese washoku are both on UNESCO’s intangible heritage list.

China is not one cuisine but many. Cantonese cooking values freshness and light sauces; Sichuan and Hunan bring chilli and numbing Sichuan pepper; Shanghai and Jiangsu cook sweeter and braise; the northwest eats lamb, cumin and noodles. Hong Kong and Macau add colonial layers: milk tea, egg tarts and Macanese dishes. Mongolia eats mutton, dairy and dumplings called buuz, with little in the way of vegetables.

Dining etiquette differs across the three big cuisines. In China, dishes are shared from the centre, the host orders and pays, and a guest leaves a little food to show plenty. In Korea, the rice bowl stays on the table and is eaten with a spoon, elders start first, and one never pours one’s own drink. In Japan, bowls are lifted to the mouth, slurping noodles is normal, and ‘itadakimasu’ is said before eating.

Some chopstick rules are shared. Never stick chopsticks upright in rice, which echoes funeral offerings; do not pass food chopstick to chopstick, a Japanese funeral rite; do not point with them or wave them. Use the serving end or serving chopsticks for shared dishes where provided. In Korea, metal chopsticks and a spoon are laid together; in China and Taiwan, a chopstick rest or the plate edge is used.

Diets are harder than in South or Southeast Asia. Dashi, fish sauce, meat stock and lard appear in dishes that look vegetarian. Taiwan is the easiest place, with many Buddhist vegetarian buffets. Japan’s shōjin ryōri, temple vegetarian cuisine, is excellent but formal. Halal food exists in western China, among Hui Muslims across China, and in tourist areas of Japan and Korea. Allergy sufferers should carry a written card, since soy, wheat, sesame and shellfish are ubiquitous.

Japan’s Shinkansen started the high-speed era in 1964 on the Tōkaidō line between Tokyo and Osaka. The network now reaches from Kagoshima to Hokkaido, with the Hokuriku line extended to Tsuruga in 2024. Trains are frequent, punctual to the minute and carry luggage limits: suitcases over a certain size need a reserved oversized-baggage seat. The Japan Rail Pass became much more expensive in October 2023 and now pays off only for long itineraries; point-to-point tickets are often cheaper.

China has built the world’s largest high-speed network since the Beijing–Tianjin line opened in 2008, linking nearly every provincial capital. Beijing to Shanghai takes about 4.5 hours. Book on the official 12306 app, which has an English version and accepts foreign passports, or through Trip.com. Show your passport at the entrance and security; stations are large and entry closes several minutes before departure, so arrive 45 minutes early. Popular routes sell out around holidays.

South Korea’s KTX opened in 2004 and runs from Seoul to Busan in about 2.5 hours; the rival SRT leaves from Suseo in southern Seoul. Book through Korail’s website or app. Taiwan’s High Speed Rail, opened in 2007, runs down the west coast from Nangang in Taipei to Zuoying in Kaohsiung in about 1 hour 45 minutes. Hong Kong’s West Kowloon station links to China’s network, with immigration checks inside the station.

City transit across East Asia is dense, clean and cheap. Tokyo’s combined rail and metro network is the busiest in the world; Seoul, Beijing and Shanghai have among the longest metros. Signs and announcements are almost always in English. Rush hour, roughly 7:30 to 9:30, is intensely crowded in Tokyo, Seoul and Shanghai; travel outside it with luggage. Metros usually stop around midnight, and night buses or taxis take over.

Stored-value transit cards make the system easy. Japan has Suica, PASMO and ICOCA, interchangeable across most cities and usable in shops; tourists can buy Welcome Suica or add Suica to an iPhone. Korea has T-money and Cashbee. Taiwan has EasyCard and iPASS. Hong Kong has Octopus, now also on phones. Mainland China uses Alipay or WeChat transit QR codes, and some metros now take foreign bank cards (check). Top up with cash at machines or convenience stores.

Hong Kong and Macau are Special Administrative Regions of China under the ‘one country, two systems’ arrangement, which runs to 2047 and 2049. For travellers they work as separate jurisdictions: each has its own immigration control, currency, visa rules and driving side. Crossing from Hong Kong or Macau into mainland China is an international-style border crossing and requires a mainland visa or eligible visa-free entry. Since 2020 Hong Kong’s national security laws have changed public life; follow local news and avoid political gatherings.

Taiwan is governed by the Republic of China, with its own passport, border control, currency, visa rules and elected government. The People’s Republic of China claims Taiwan, and only a small number of countries formally recognise the government in Taipei; most keep unofficial offices instead. For travellers, a Chinese visa does not cover Taiwan and vice versa, and flights between them are classed as cross-strait routes. Discuss the topic neutrally; opinions on both sides are strong.

Mainland China has opened up for many visitors. Nationals of a growing list of countries, including most of Europe, Australia, New Zealand and several in Asia and Latin America, can enter visa-free for up to 30 days under a policy extended to the end of 2026 (check). A 240-hour visa-free transit scheme allows onward travel to a third country via designated ports (check your nationality). Hotels register foreign guests with the police automatically; carry your passport at all times.

Internet access differs sharply. In mainland China, Google services, WhatsApp, Instagram, Facebook, X, YouTube and many foreign news sites are blocked. Roaming on a foreign SIM or eSIM routes data through your home network and usually avoids the blocks; VPNs are in a legal grey area and often unreliable. Before arriving, install WeChat, Alipay, a local map app such as Amap, and an offline translator. In Korea, Google Maps directions are limited, so use Naver Map or KakaoMap.

Sensitive topics exist throughout the region. In mainland China, avoid public discussion of Tiananmen 1989, Tibet, Xinjiang, Taiwan independence and criticism of national leaders; do not carry protest materials. In South Korea, the National Security Act restricts praise of North Korea. Wartime history, including Yasukuni Shrine and compensation disputes, is contentious between Japan, Korea and China. North Korea can be visited only on tightly controlled tours, and many governments advise against it.

Borders between East Asian states are all full international borders, and ferries between them are weather-dependent. There is no land crossing between the two Koreas for tourists. Mongolia is visa-free for many nationalities for up to 30 days (check), and the Trans-Mongolian railway links Beijing, Ulaanbaatar and Russia. Check your own government’s advice for each country before travel, because rules can change quickly.

Mainland China is the most cashless place on earth. Almost everything, from street stalls to taxis and temple entry, is paid by scanning a QR code with Alipay or WeChat Pay. Since 2023, both apps let foreign visitors link Visa, Mastercard and other international cards; a small fee applies to larger payments (check). Set up the apps and verify your identity before arriving. Merchants are legally required to accept cash, but many lack change, so carry some yuan as backup.

Japan is more cash-based than its technology suggests. Many small restaurants, shrines, rural inns and ticket machines still take cash only, though card and QR payments have grown fast. IC transit cards such as Suica also pay in convenience stores and vending machines. ATMs at 7-Eleven and Japan Post accept most foreign cards; many bank ATMs do not. Carry ¥10,000–20,000 in cash as a buffer.

South Korea runs on cards. Almost every business accepts credit or debit cards, including taxis and market stalls, and cash is increasingly rare. Foreign cards occasionally fail at kiosks and some online booking systems, which expect a Korean phone number or card; keep a second card and some won. Local payment apps such as KakaoPay and Naver Pay are now open to some foreign cards (check). T-money cards also pay at convenience stores.

Taiwan mixes the two. Cards work in hotels, chains and department stores, but night markets, small eateries and many shops want cash. EasyCard and iPASS pay transit and many convenience store purchases. LINE Pay and Taiwan Pay exist but are aimed at locals. Hong Kong uses Octopus everywhere, with cards common and cash still accepted. Macau’s pataca is pegged to the Hong Kong dollar, and Hong Kong dollars are accepted at par in most places, though change comes back in patacas.

Mongolia uses cards widely in Ulaanbaatar hotels and restaurants, but cash in tugrik is needed outside the capital, on tours and in the countryside. North Korea operates entirely outside the international banking system for visitors on tours. Across the region, decline dynamic currency conversion at card terminals and withdraw larger amounts to limit fixed ATM fees.

Order, quiet and consideration for others run through public life in the region, strongest in Japan. Queue for trains in marked lines, keep phone calls off public transport, stand on the correct side of escalators, which is left in Tokyo and right in Osaka, and carry your rubbish home, because public bins are rare in Japan. In Korea and Taiwan, priority seats are left empty even when trains are crowded.

Greetings vary. Japanese bow, and a slight bow in return is always correct. Koreans combine a small bow with a handshake, often with the left hand supporting the right forearm as a sign of respect. In China, a light handshake is normal. Business cards are exchanged with both hands, studied briefly and placed on the table, never pocketed immediately. Use family names with titles such as -san in Japan and -ssi or seonsaengnim in Korea.

Age and rank shape the table. In Korea, wait for the eldest to start eating, turn away slightly when drinking in front of elders, and pour drinks for others with two hands. In China, the host typically pays and toasts are frequent; ganbei means emptying the glass. In Japan, pour for others rather than yourself, and wait for the ‘kanpai’ toast before drinking. Splitting the bill is increasingly common among younger people.

Tipping is not expected in Japan, Korea, China or Taiwan, and can cause confusion; excellent service is simply part of the job. Upscale restaurants and hotels may add a 10% service charge in Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and China. Gifts, when visiting homes, are given and received with both hands; avoid sets of four in China, Japan and Korea, since four sounds like the word for death.

Onsen and bathhouse etiquette in Japan and Korea is strict. Wash thoroughly at the shower stations before entering the bath, do not put towels in the water, and bathe nude in single-sex areas. Many Japanese onsen still refuse people with tattoos, though more are relaxing the rule or offering cover stickers; check before going. In Korea’s jjimjilbang, special clothes are provided for mixed areas.

Shoes come off in homes, ryokan, temple halls and some restaurants. In Japan, switch to toilet slippers and back again. Blowing your nose at the table is impolite in Japan and Korea. Eating while walking is frowned on in parts of Japan, including Kyoto’s Nishiki Market, which asks visitors not to. Photography of geisha and people in private streets in Kyoto’s Gion is restricted, with fines on some lanes.